World War II US Army Air Force Combat Glider History

US ARMY AIR FORCE

COMBAT GLIDER PROGRAM

A COMPREHENSIVE HISTORY

By Major Leon B. Spencer, USAF (Ret’d), WWII Glider Pilot

I - General:

As late as 1938 the War Department was not convinced that the glider had any real value as a military weapon.  It was not until 1940 when the military intelligence department informed the Army brass that the Germans had successfully captured the allegedly impregnable Belgium fortress, Eben Emael using only eleven 9-place DFS-230 military gliders transporting 78 highly trained combat engineers.   At the time there was not a single American military glider in the Air Crops or a single rated glider pilot listed in its personnel records.  A small number of military personnel did hold CAA glider pilot licenses for soaring gliders, but a 1931 War Department regulation prohibited them from flying gliders during their off-duty hours because of a number of flying injuries suffered by some of these flyers.   

In February 1941, things changed based on intelligence reports from abroad, the Army Air Corps brass deemed it advisable to initiate a study with the objective of developing a glider that could be towed by an aircraft and carry troops or cargo.  Major General Henry H. “Hap” Arnold, Chief of the Army Air Corps, personally directed the initiation of the study.  Unfortunately, the Air Corps planners charged with conducting the study had no prior experience with military gliders so they relied on the advice of civilian sailplane experts such as John Robinson, Lewin Barringer and Richard DuPont.  Time would prove that sailplanes and military combat gliders were a different breed and had little in common.   

  

The machinery that would produce a suitable military glider was officially set in motion by two Classified Technical Instructions, CTI-198, dated 24 February 1941 and CTI-203, dated 4 March 1941.  These instruments authorized the preparation of design studies and the procurement of 2, 8 and 15-place gliders and associated equipment for test and evaluation.  Only the 15-place glider will be covered by this document.  The Materiel Division at Wright Field in Dayton, Ohio, conceived the 15-place glider as an aircraft having a towing speed of 120 mph, a stalling speed of 30 mph with flaps deployed, a normal towing altitude of 12,000 feet and capable of transporting a 3,800 pound load.

II - Glider Design and Construction:

Engineers in the Aircraft Laboratory at Wright Field received advance word of the study and immediately began preparing Specification No. 1025-2 for a 15-place glider.  When it was completed on 8 March 1941 it was mailed to eleven companies.  Only four companies responded; Bowlus Sailplanes, Inc. of San Francisco, California; Frankfort Sailplane Company of Joliet, Illinois; St. Louis Aircraft Corporation of St. Louis, Missouri and WACO Aircraft Company of Troy, Ohio.  Of the proposals submitted only the WACO (pronounced “Wock Oh”) proposal was totally compliant.  The WACO glider, designed by A. Francis Archier, Vice President and Chief Engineer, and his engineering staff, was far from aerodynamically sleek in form.  With its blunt nose and slab sides many remarked that it looked more like a dragonfly than an aircraft.  However, it would prove to be easy to fly and durable, two important objectives. 

  

The WACO glider, designated the CG-4A by the Army Air Corps, would became the mainstay of the American World War II glider fleet.  The “C” in the designation stood for cargo, while the “G” stood for glider.   It turned out to be an excellent utility glider that performed well in combat.  It could not only transport infantry troops, but it could also transport supplies and equipment needed by the lightly armed paratroopers fighting the enemy.   The big glider had none of the soaring characteristics attributed to its little brother, the high performance sailplane.  With an aspect ratio of 8.1 and a sink rate of 950 feet per minute at 100 mph, there was only one way for the CG-4A to go after release from the tow plane and that was down.  However, it reacted to the same aerodynamic forces as a powered aircraft, but it had no engine.   Any power pilot could step from the cockpit of a powered aircraft into the cockpit of a CG-4A glider and feel right at home at the flight controls after suitable transition training.

On 17 June 1941, the Procurement Office at Wright Field issued Contract ac-19269 to WACO for one static-test and two flight-test models of its glider.   Ten months later, on 28 April 1942, WACO delivered the static-test XCG-4 glider.  The following month, on 14 May 1942, the two flight-test models were delivered.  Some of the static and flight tests were likely done at Wright Field by Aircraft Laboratory personnel, but substantial evidence exists that a preponderance of the 1942 flight tests were conducted by the Flight Research Unit of the Glider Branch at Clinton County Army Air Field, Wilmington, Ohio.

The XCG-4 was officially declared acceptable on 20 June 1942.  However, so urgent was the demand for these gliders at advanced training schools that procurement contracts were issued to thirteen companies in March and April 1942 even before the glider was officially approved for procurement.  In an effort to increase production three more companies were issued contracts in June and July 1942.  The program was so rushed that it was soon discovered that components from one company’s CG-4As was not interchangeable with the CG-4A components of another company.  It was a deficiency that caused problems in the beginning that the Army Air Forces learned to live with.         

The production CG-4A glider was a strut-braced, high-wing monoplane built of steel tubing, plywood and cotton aircraft fabric.  It had a wingspan of 83’8”, was 48’4” in length, and stood 12’8” at its highest point, the vertical stabilizer.  The cargo compartment was 13’2” in length, 4”10” in width and 5’6” in height.  Initially, two types of landing gear were specified for the CG-4A.  Both will be covered in detail later in this document.  The initial CG-4As had only a single, inverted swing-over control wheel, while later models had dual controls.  The glider could be trimmed in respect to all three axes with three separate trim tab controls located overhead between the pilot and copilot seats.  The glider instruments consisted of an airspeed indicator, a sensitive altimeter, a bank and turn indicator, a rate of climb indicator and a compass.  

By edict from Headquarters, Army Air Corps, no strategic materials such as aluminum, copper, etc. could be used by contractors building the CG-4A.  These materials were reserved for bombers, fighters and transport aircraft.  The wooden parts of the CG-4A was mainly Sitka spruce and yellow poplar of carefully selected stock.  Western hemlock, Douglas and Noble fir, Sitka pine, sweet gum and mahogany veneer plywood was also used.  Much of the thin sheathing plywood was 3/32^nd, 5-ply stock; however, some 3-ply was used.

The nose of the CG-4A was hinged at the top so that it could be raised for ease in loading and unloading the glider.  Typical glider payloads included glider infantrymen, jeeps, jeep trailers, 57mm, 75mm and 105mm field artillery pieces, medical supplies, rations, gasoline and sometimes chapel organs.  The types of cargo carried were limited only by the size and weight of the item.  Less frequent loads were the 4,955 pound Clark CA-1 bulldozer and the 4,077 pound M29 “Weasel” amphibious vehicle.  

External visibility for the pilot and copilot was excellent.  Four round windows were placed on each side of the cargo section to help minimize airsickness of the airborne troops riding inside.  According to the glider technical manual …. “Men aft of the center of gravity tended to become airsick very easily.”  Two racks of sanitary containers were installed in the cargo section for airsickness victims.       

When transporting troops four removable, mahogany, 3-man bench seats were installed, two on each side of the cargo section to accommodate twelve glider infantrymen.  Each plywood bench seat was 54¼” long, 17¾” wide at the top, 15½” at the bottom, was 14½” high in front, and 15” high in the back.   A fold- down seat for the thirteenth infantryman was installed at the rear of the cargo section on the pilot’s side near the left cargo section door.   Emergency exits were provided in the cargo section under the wing.  Web seat belts were provided for each glider trooper as well as Mae West life jackets, but no parachutes.  Doors were provided on both sides of the aft section of the cargo compartment. 

The glider fuselage was constructed of welded 1025 or X1430 chrome molybdenum steel tubing, with X1430 being specified for high stress areas.  The honeycombed cargo section floor was covered with thin sheets of plywood.  The wings were rectangular in plan form and built in four sections.  The wooden wing consisted of a wooden main spar, wooden rear “I” spar and wooden ribs, all covered with thin plywood.  A cotton aircraft fabric was then added and doped.  The inner section of the wings was braced for torsion by a pair of streamlined airfoil struts.  The wood and fabric tail section consisted of a vertical dorsal fin, horizontal stabilizers, elevators and a rudder.  The CG-4A consisted of more than 70,000 individual parts, many of them wooden.  Following its acceptance by Wright Field, more than 7,000 modifications were approved for the CG4A, none of them major in scope.

The CG-4A was not equipped with flaps as originally conceived.  Instead, it was provided with wing spoilers.   Each spoiler consisted of a 6.5 foot by 10 inch flush rectangular plate mounted 3 feet back from the leading edge of the wing on both sides of the fuselage.  A four foot long lever, set at a 30 degree forward angle, was located on the outer side of each cockpit seat so that the pilot or copilot could open or close the spoilers.  With this device the pilot could kill off a large percentage of the lift created by the modified Clark-Y airfoil.   Use of the spoilers increased the rate of descent from a normal 950 feet per minute at 100 mph to as much as 1,600 feet per minute.  Thus the pilot soon learned to plan his approach on the high side so that in the final moments before touchdown the spoilers could be deployed to put the glider down on the intended spot.                             

                                     

Originally, two types of landing gear was specified for the CG-4A glider; one a shock absorbing gear, permanently attached to the fuselage for training; the other a tactical droppable take-off gear that was released by the pilot after becoming airborne.  Four thick laminated, spring-loaded wooden skids, two mounted in tandem on each side of the glider mid-section, were provided for landing after the tactical landing gear was jettisoned.  The training landing gear was of the conventional type employing spring-oil shock absorbers in the main and tail gear units.  Hydraulically operated brakes were incorporated in the main gear.  The solid rubber tail wheel was a full swiveling type with a self-centering spring.  Landing the CG-4A on wheels allowed the glider to be steered, while landing on skids alone did not.  Ultimately, the permanent-type training landing gear became standard.  Technical Order No. 09-40CA-1, dated 15 June 1943, indicated that the empty weight of the CG-4A with the jettisoned gear was 3,970 pounds, while the empty weight with the training gear was 3,900 pounds.

Some early CG-4As were equipped with Radio Set AN/SCR-585, a portable short-range VHF two-way communications system installed behind the copilot on the right hand interior side of the fuselage.  A remote control was located below the instrument panel that was accessible to both the pilot and copilot.  The portable, hand-held radio was removed by either pilot when they left the glider.  Beginning in 1944, gliders were equipped with the AN/A1A-1 interphone system for communication between the glider and the tow plane.  The 3-conductor interphone cable was coiled around the tow rope with ties every twelve inches with considerable slack in the cable between the ties.  However, with the 25 to 35% stretch in the nylon rope the interphone cable often broke.   Glider pilots gave the interphone system mixed reviews.  Some liked it, some didn’t.  During the latter part of World War II the Army Air Force ordered a number of tow ropes with the interphone cable embedded in the rope, but there is no evidence that they were ever used in training or combat.

III - CG-4A Glider Procurement:

As indicated previously, sixteen companies were awarded production contracts to build the CG-4A glider.  The name of the companies is listed below:

     Company Name                     Location                  Contract No.          Qty Ordered

Porterfield Aircraft Co.         Kansas City, MO         W 535 ac-26159                    7

Jenter Corporation²             Ridgefield, NJ             W 535 ac-26507                162

National Aircraft Corp.        Elwood, IN                 W 535 ac-26259                    1

Robertson Acft. Corp.           St. Louis, MO             W 535 ac-26257                170

WACO Aircraft Corp.           Troy, OH                    W 535 ac-25851              1,074

Ford Motor Company          Iron Mountain, MI      W 535 ac-28380              4,190

Cessna Aircraft Corp.           Wichita, KS                W 535 ac-27833                750

Timm Aircraft Corp             Los Angele, CA           W 535 ac-26232                433

Babcock Aircraft Corp.         Deland, FL                 W 535 ac-26256                  60

General Aircraft Corp.         Astoria, NY                 W 535 ac-26158              1,112

AGA Aviation Corp.³            Willow Grove, PA       W 535 ac-26255                627

Laister-Kauffmann               St. Louis, MO             W 535 ac-26599                310

Gibson Refrigerator Co.       Greenville, MI            W 535 ac-30115              1.078

Rearwin Acft & Eng. Inc.⁴    Kansas City, MO         W 535 ac-26140              1,470

Northwestern Aero Corp.    Minneapolis, MN        W 535 ac-26936              1,509

Pratt-Read and Co., Inc.      Deep River, CT           W 535 ac-26213                956

                                                                                                        Total 13,909

Note 1:  Porterfield Aircraft Company of Kansas City, Missouri, was replaced by Ward Furniture Manufacturing Company of the same city.

Note 2:  Jenter Corporation of Ridgefield, New Jersey was replaced by Ridgefield Manufacturing Company of the same city.

Note 3:  AGA Aviation Corporation of Willow Grove, Pennsylvania, was replaced by G & A Aircraft, Inc. of Kansas City, Missouri.

Note 4:  Rearwin Aircraft and Engine, Inc. of Kansas City, Kansas, was replaced by Commonwealth Aircraft, Inc. of the same city.  

When tallied by aircraft serial number, only 13,903 CG-4As were delivered, not 13,906 or 13,909 as stated in many published books and articles.

IV - CG-4A Delivery  Problems:

Cessna Aircraft Company delivered the first production CG-4A to be built to Lockbourne Army Air Base in Columbus, Ohio, on 1 September 1942.  Within the next ten days it delivered seven more gliders.   Still later in September it delivered thirty-two more to the Air Force, all of them going to Advanced Glider Training Schools.  Much of Cessna’s manufacture and assembly work was subcontracted to Boeing and Beech Aircraft Companies.  The Wichita, Kansas, Division of Boeing was enlisted to manufacture the metal fuselage frames and assemble outer wing panels, while Beech manufactured the tail group and assembled inboard wing panels.  In 1987, retired Colonel Cecil Petty remembered picking up the first CG-4A at Boeing’s Wichita plant.  The AAF would admit in 1943 that the Cessna gliders were built under the stress of a highly accelerated program which necessitated deviations from standard practice, and as a result the workmanship quality was poor and many details were not in accordance with Army Air Force standards.   

After gliders began rolling off the assembly line at Cessna and other plants they were grounded because of frequent failures of the special fittings attaching the tail brace wires to the tail surfaces.  A few gliders had lost the tail assembly in flight with tragic results.  New streamlined wires were quickly manufactured and just as quickly they too failed.  Finally, a stranded cable was installed on top of the horizontal stabilizer and attached to the vertical dorsal fin, while airfoil struts were installed on the underside of the horizontal stabilizer and then attached to the fuselage frame.  This solved the problem.    

Ford Motor Company, who produced 4,190 CG-4A gliders, the largest producer of CG-4A gliders didn’t deliver its first g1ider until August 1942, and had delivered on 12 gliders by December 1942.  Because of major delays Ford did not produce substantial quantities of the CG-4A glider until May 1943. 

In the first three months of 1943 50% or more of the CG-4As were grounded because of frequent failures of the landing gear fittings, the tow rope release mechanism and the nose raising locking device.  After evaluating the problem the Army’s assessment was that the first problem was caused by pilots making hard landings, while the latter two problems were the result of faulty maintenance.  Dirt collecting in the mechanism was not being removed and lubrication of the devices was inadequate.

V - Shipment of CG-4A Gliders:

Once a glider was built and released for shipment it was disassembled and packed in five wooden crates that were built in accordance with US Army Specification No. 23-78A, dated 5 October 1942.  The five crates were constructed of 11,000 feet of Grade “A” lumber at a cost of $2,000.  They occupied 5,231 cubic feet and weighed a total of 30.8 ship tons.  It took two railroad flatcars to transport one CG-4A glider.  Heavy brown paper was taped over the glider’s Plexiglas windows and windshield to prevent scratching.  Outlined below are the dimensions and weight data for the glider shipping crates:

Box No.                 Contents                   Length      Width       Height       Weight

     1              Fuselage Nose Section      8’ 10”        7’ 2”          5’ 9”         1,800 lbs

     2               Fuselage Center Section   24’ 3”        7’ 5”          8’ 3”         5,200 lbs

     3               Fuselage Rear Section      24’ 3”        6’ 10”        6’ 11”       4.400 lbs

                     and Tail Group

     4               Outboard Wing Panels      17’ 2”        4’ 10”        11’ 7”       3.750 lbs

     5               Inboard Wing Panels        25’ 3”        4’ 4”          11” 7”       5,375 lbs

Note:    Where possible, when the need was urgent, glider pilots picked up gliders at the plant and flew them to training bases.  

VI - Glider Pilot Training:

From the outset of the glider program the curriculum for training glider pilots was flawed because of inexperienced training planners.  With no precedent to draw on Training Command personnel were ignorant of the differences between the military glider and the civilian sailplane.  There was at least one incident where a glider pilot claimed that he gained altitude in a thermal, but this probably was a freak occurrence.   In comparison with the sailplane, the CG-4A had a glider radio of around 12 to 1, while the glider ratio of a sailpnae was 30 to 1 or more.  Slope and thermal soaring was useless since the heavy combat glider did not soar.   Unfortunately, this improper training continued for months.  The only useful part of the early glider training was spot landing proficiency.  Sadly, novice glider planners did not recognize and correct the flaws in the training program for many months.

VII - Glider Pilot Candidate Qualifications:

In April 1942 the qualifications for Army Air Corps glider pilot candidates were as follows:

A candidate must:

1.  Be 18 to 32 years of age inclusive (This was eventually raised to 35)

2.  Must pass an Air Force Class I physical examination. (Later raised to Class II)

3.  Must meet one of the following:

a.  Must be a graduate of the CPT secondary course.  (Eventually candidates with no flying experience were accepted)

b.  Must hold a private pilot certificate or higher, with a 0 to 240 hp or 2’ s rating

         c.  Must be a CAA rated glider pilot with 30 hours of flight time or 200 landings

4.  Enlisted personnel who can qualify under 1,2, and 3 above are authorized to train in grade

5.  No candidate who has been eliminated from air crew training in the Army/Navy/Air

     Corps will be eligible.  (This was later changed.  Wash outs were welcomed)

In June 1942 candidates with no previous flying experience were accepted as trainees in the Glider Program.   They were classified as Class “B” students, while those with previous flying training were classified as Class “A” students.   The training requirements of these two classes of glider students will be covered in more detail later in this document.  

VIII - Early Glider Pilot Training:

On 16 May 1941 the Materiel Division was instructed by General Arnold’s office to negotiate the necessary contracts to provide glider training for twelve Air Corp officers.  Before the training could commence, however, it was necessary that the 1931 War Department restriction on glider flying by Army personnel be revoked.  This was accomplished on 5 June 1941. 

Proposals were received from two civilian agencies, the Frankfort Sailplane Company of Joliet, Illinois, and the Elmira Area Soaring Corporation, of Elmira, New York., to teach six Air Corps officers each to fly gliders..  The proposed course was to be approximately three weeks in duration at a cost of $350 to $395 a student. A subsequent proposal was received from the Lewis School of Aeronautics in Lockport, Illinois.  The AAF issued orders for twelve officers to report for glider training on 1 June 1942, six at Elmira and six at Lockport.  Four of the twelve officers were from the Material Division and eight were from the 50^th Transport Wing.  All of their training was in utility or soaring gliders.  The course was completed on 23 June 1941.

The training of the first twelve officer glider trainees was characterized by an absence of detailed plans for the future training of glider pilots.  On 14 June 1941, the Materiel Division concerned over the need for large numbers of trained glider pilots urged the Training and Operations Division, Office Chief of Air Corps, to establish a definite glider training program utilizing the facilities of the school at Elmira, while the trained instructors and personnel there were still available.   In the meantime the second class of student officers began training at Elmira. 

In September 1941 a contract was negotiated with Twenty-nine Palms Air Academy in Twenty-nine Palms, California, to train 126 officer pilots, the first class to begin on 30 November 1941.  Training did not get underway as planned.  It was approximately the first of January 1942 when a refresher course for the civilian glider instructors was conducted, and 19 days later a class of twelve students began training.  Two weeks later a class of eighteen commenced training and thereafter, classes of twenty-four commenced every two weeks.

In order to provide the number of schools needed to train 6,000 glider pilots as requested by the AAF, the training centers were instructed to establish new glider training schools in addition to the two already in operation at the Elmira Area Soaring Corporation, now located in Mobile, Alabama, and Twenty-nine Palms Air Academy   The training centers began negotiations immediately with positive but slow results.  From the outset AAF planners elected to use civilian contract schools for pre-glider and basic glider training while advanced training would be conducted at Army Air Bases.   Soon pools had to be established to accommodate the large numbers of glider students awaiting training.   Training could not began until the training schools shown below were in operation, which was set for 6 July 1942             

IX – Pre-Glider Contract Training Schools:¹

The following pre-glider contract training schools were under the jurisdiction of the Southeast Army Air Forces Training Center, Maxwell Field, Montgomery, Alabama:

       Training School                                 City                    State          Airfield Name

L. Miller-Wittig                                                 3 miles NNW                  MN             Crookston Airfield

         Capacity: 80                                                            Crookston                        

            North American Aviation Co.                          Stillwater                       MN             Stillwater Airfield

            Capacity: 112

            Hinck Flying Service, Inc.²                                1 mile NNE                    MN             Monticello Airfield

            Capacity: 112                                                      Monticello

            Fontana School of Aeronautics                        1.7 miles SSE                MN             Rochester Airfield

            Capacity: 112                                                      Rochester

            Anderson Air Activities                                    Antigo                              WI              Antigo Airfield

            Capacity: 140                                        

         Jolly Flying Service                                            2.6 miles NNW             ND              Grand Forks Airport                Capacity: 212            of Airport

           

            Morey Airplane Company                                 1.8 miles NNE              WI              Janesville Airfield

            Capacity: 112                                                      Janesville

The following contract pre-glider training schools were under the jurisdiction of the Gulf Coast Army Air Forces Training Center, Randolph Field, San Antonio, Texas

        Training School                                City                    State          Airfield Name      

Grand Central Flying School                           2 Miles NNE                  KS              Goodland Airfield    

Capacity: 240                                                      Goodland

Harte Flying Service                                          1.5 miles E                     KS              Hays Airfield

Capacity 160                                                       Hays

McFarland Flying Service                                 3.5 miles NW                 KS              Pittsburg Municipal                 Capacity 120              of Pittsburgh                                                      pal Airport

Kenneth Starnes Flying Service                      Lonoke                             AR              Lonoke Airport

Capacity 80

Sooner Air Training Corp.                                2 miles ENE                  OK              Okmulgee Airfield

Capacity 160                                                       Okmulgee

Hunter Flying Service³                                      2.9 miles WNW             IA               Spencer Municipal

Capacity 160                                                       Spencer                                               Airport

Anderson and Brennan                                     2.9 miles E of                 SD              Aberdeen Airfield

Flying Service                                                      Aberdeen

Note:  Hunter Flying Service of Spencer, Iowa, moved from Spencer to the municipal airport at Hamilton, Texas, on 20 October 1942.

The following contract pre-glider training schools were under the jurisdiction of the West Coast Army Air Forces Training Center, Santa Ana, California

Training School                                City                   State           Airfield Name

         Big Spring Flying Service                                 18 Miles NNW              TX               Big Spring Airport

            Capacity 80                                                          Big Springs

            Cutter-Carr Flying Service                               7 miles E                        NM             Tucumcari Airfield

            Capacity 80                                                          Tucumcari                     

           

            Plains Airways Inc.                                            4 miles N                        CO              Fort Morgan Airfield

            Capacity 184                                                       Fort Morgan

            Clint Breedlove Aerial Service⁴                       7.5 miles N.                    TX               Lamesa Airfield       

            Capacity 152                                                       Lamesa

Note 1:  The 18 civilian contract pre-glider schools listed above were scheduled to be in operation by 1 June 1942, but there was some slippage.  The pre-glider schools are listed on Page 19 of USAF Historical Studies No. 1, “The Glider Pilot Training Program 1941 – 1943.”

Note 2:  The pre-glider school at Monticello, Minnesota, was officially the 14^th Army Air Forces Glider Training Detachment. 

Note 3:  The pre-glider school at Spencer, Iowa was officially the 23^rd Army Air Forces Glider Training Detachment.

Note 4:  The pre-glider school at Lamesa, Texas, was officially the 28^th Army Air Forces Glider Training Detachment. 

X - Pre-Glider Training Requirements:

Pre-glider students were required to complete 60 hours of ground school training as well as flight training.   The ground school curriculum included three hours of classroom work a day for a period of twenty days.  Field Manuals and Technical Manuals were   listed as texts.  The course included 10 hours of meteorology, 6 of navigation, 10 of maintenance, 2 of aircraft identification, 1 of chemical warfare defense, 4 of instruments, 20 of physical training, and 8 hours of Customs of the Service, plus basic military indoctrination and close-order drill.

Class “A students were required to log 30 hours of deadstick landings in military liaison aircraft over a four week period, while Class “B” students were given 40 hours of flight training, twenty-five days at one hour and thirty-six minutes a day.  This included nineteen hours of dual and twenty-one of solo training.  An additional 15 hours of deadstick landings in military liaison aircraft were required over a two week period.  Particular emphasis was placed on the attainment of proficiency in spot landings.

XI - Night Flying:

Since most glider combat missions were expected to be flown under cover of darkness part of a glider students flight training was conducted at night.  Flying at night was quite different from flight during the day.  Students had to adapt their eyes to darkness by staying away from bright lights for 30 minutes prior to night flights.  Instructors warned students about the effects of autokinesis, a nocturnal visual allusion in which a fixed light appears to move when a person stares at it intently.  Students were taught to keep their head and eyes moving.  Much more will be explained about night flying during tactical training in the CG-4A glider.            

XII - Elementary-Advanced Contract Glider Training Schools:¹

The following glider pilot training schools were selected to provide Elementary-Advanced Glider Training Schools, but the idea fizzled.   Most of the schools became basic glider training schools instead:

 Training School                                       City                   State          Airfield Name

         Burke Aviation Service²                                    3 miles North                OK              Vinita Airfield

                                                                                            of Vinita

            Arizona Gliding Academy                                 17 miles W of                 AZ               Echeverria Field

                                                                                            Wickenburg

            Waterman Airlines, Inc.                                   10 miles W of                 AL              Mobile Municipal

                                                                                            Mobile                                                 Airport

            Twenty-Nine Palms Air                                    5 miles N of                    CA              Condor Field

            Academy                                                               29-Palms

            Dalhart Army Air Field                                    Amarillo                         TX               English Field in

            Overrun                                                                                                                               Amarillo

            Blackland Army Air Field                                Waco                                TX               Blackland AAF

            Lockbourne Army Air Base                              Columbus                       OH              Lockbourne AAB

Note 1:  The Elementary-Advanced Glider Schools were to train glider students in light utility gliders, followed by training in the big 15-place Waco CG-4A Cargo/troop glider.

Note 2:  The basic glider training school at Vinita, Oklahoma, was officially the 27^th Army Air Forces Glider Training Detachment.

XIII - Basic Glider Training Requirements:

Basic glider students were required to log 30 hours of flight time in light gliders, many of them were originally powered liaison aircraft converted to gliders by removing the engine and cowling and replacing them with a newly designed nose that provided a third seat, a new lower landing gear was developed to give the aircraft a ground attitude similar to that of the big Waco CG-4A glider, an additional vertical fin was added to counter the increased side area of the extended canopy.   A receptacle was added in the nose to accommodate a glider tow rope.   These converted aircraft were known as the Aeronca TG-5A, Taylorcraft TG-6 and the Piper TG-8.

Much of the basic flight training was conducted in the two-seat, high-wing Frankfort TG-1A, known as the Cinema 2, and the three-seat TG-5A, TG-6A and TG-8A.  The basic flying schools had a few impressed single-seat, high performance sailplanes but glider students usually were not permitted to fly them.

  

               Basic Flight Training Requirements:                         Dual Hours      Solo Hours

  1. Familiarization                                                                              2

  2. Precision landings, basic maneuvers                                         3                              8

  3. Soaring                                                                                             1                              2

  4. Instrument time under hood in free                                           2

      flight           

                  5. Night flying                                                                                      2                              4           

  6. Navigation flights and strange field landings.                       

      “Cut off point” to be maximum distance from

      The landing field                                                                             2                              4

                                                                                         Total     12                                   18

Note: Flight training was scheduled to last for twenty days, flying one and half hours a day.

Basic Ground School Requirements:

                       Subject                                                                     No. Hours

        1. Meteorology                                                                             18

        2. Glider characteristics and design                                                 6

        3. Instruments                                                                               6

        4. Link Trainer                                                                             10

        5. Maintenance                                                                              6

        6. Physical Training                                                                      10

        7. Customs of the Service, basic military indoctrination                     

            and drill                                                                                      4

                                                                                                Total     60

      Note:  Ground school was scheduled to last twenty days at 3 hours a day.  The civilian contract basic glider school furnished board, lodging and transportation to and from the airfield.  Students were required to reimburse the contractor for their room and board from their military quarters and ration allowances.  The government allowance in 1942 was $1.25 per day for lodging and $1.00 per day for rations.

XIV - Advanced Glider Training Schools:

Advanced glider training schools were established at the following military establishments:

       

      Training Schools                          Location                    City                      State

Bergstrom Army Air Field                       8 miles East                     Austin                              TX

Dalhart Army Air Base                             3 miles SSW                      Dalhart                           TX

South Plains Army Air Field                   4.5 miles NNE                  Lubbock                          TX

Bowman Field                                             5.5 miles east                    Louisville                        KY

Fort Sumner Army Air Field                   2.6 miles NW                     Ft. Sumner                     NM

Greenville Army Air Base                        7 miles SSE                       Greenville                       SC

Lockbourne Army Air Base                      9.5 miles SE                      Columbus                       OH

Stuttgart Army Air Field                         6.5 miles North                 Stuttgart                        AR

Victorville Army Air Field                        5 miles NW                        Victorville                 CA

XV – Advanced Glider Training Requirements:

Flight School

                                                                                                                     Hours

                                                                                                              Dual        Solo           

01.  Familiarization Flight                                                            ½

02.  Tow technique, take-off climb, climbing turns, straight           1

        and level tows, recovery from bad tow position, to in-

        clude prop wash

            03.  Coordination exercises                                                            ½            ½

            04.   Stalls, partial and complete with immediate recovery,               1             1

                    from straight glides and gliding turns                                   

            05.   Precision flying stressing constant air speed                            1             1

            06.   Landings, including use of brakes and nose skid for                 1             1  

                    short roll                                                                                                  

            07.   Accuracy landings, 180⁰   stage                                                              1

            08.   Descent on tow from 3,000 feet to 180⁰ side position                ½            ½

            09.   Night flying                                                                           1             2

            10.   Final Check                                                                                          ½

                                                                                                      Total    6½         8½

Ground School

                                                                                                                       Hours

            01.   Maintenance of gliders and tow equipment (student                          10

                    doing the servicing and minor repairs)

            02.   Tactical maps and aerial photography                                                5

            03.   Cargo loading, Jeep servicing and operation                                       2

            04.   Camouflage                                                                                      2

            05.   Aircraft identification                                                                        6

                                                                                                                         25

Note:  Ground school training was conducted two and a half hours a day for ten days, while flight training was conducted five hours a day for twelve days.   An advanced glider pilot graduate was expected to be proficient and qualified to operate a CG-4A glider in the various types of towed flight, both day and night; be qualified to service the glider in the field; be able to make spot landings; and be able to properly load the glider, considering weight and balance.

XVI – glider tow planes

First Troop Carrier Command was charged with the responsibility of providing tow planes for the advanced glider schools.  At the outset it became a problem of immediate concern with the expected delivery of the 15-place CG-4A in the summer of 1942.  However, delays resulted in few gliders being delivered by the end of the year.  Ford Motor Company, the leading producer of CG-4As didn’t deliver its first glider until August 1942, and had delivered only four CG-4As by the end of the year. 

Initially, ITCC selected the Douglas C-47 in its inventory for towing duties.   It then requested that Wright Field Aircraft Laboratories run tests on the C-47s performance under varying conditions.  Detailed questions were posed regarding take-off, manifold rpm, propeller pitch, rate of climb, climb, cruise and descent.   One test in July 1942 revealed that towing two CG-4As was not feasible, but this turned out not to be true.  Despite the initial findings ITCC began flying double tows at Laurinburg-Maxton AAB in July 1943.  Two reasons prompted this action, one being the shortage of tow planes and the other was the expressed interest of Airborne Command in the project.  Pilots started double tow with some trepidation.  One of them said that the “first time I did a double tow it almost scared the life out of me.”  But after a short time I determined that it was a valuable step forward in glider use because it doubled the effectiveness of the tow plane while decreasing its efficiency by very little. 

On 13 October 1942, two test flights were made to study the performance and fuel consumption of the C-47 with a fully loaded CG-4A glider in tow.  One flight was made from Indianapolis to St. Louis and from St. Louis to Oklahoma City, covering 224 miles on the first leg and 476 on the second, a total of 700 miles.  The second flight was from Indianapolis to Oklahoma by way of Louisiana.  Gasoline consumption on these two flights averaged 1.2 plus miles per gallon at an indicated air speed of 120 mph and it was believed that a more favorable figure could be established by an indicated air speed of 110 mph.  With a standard 821 gallon fuel load, a range of 800 miles could be assured and with fuselage tanks there was a possible extension of the range to 1,500 miles. 

Particularly critical of the towing efficiency of the C-47 was an Eastern Airlines, Inc. report of tests made in January and February 1943.  This report indicated that the transportation efficiency for a C-47 (or C-49) when towing a loaded CG-4A glider was substantially lowered.  The let-down speed of the glider was 65 mph and that of the aircraft about twice as much, making a highly inefficient combination.  Other findings were that the airplane alone was far more economical of fuel; that the drag of the glider was due to high wing drag; that the excessive cylinder head temperatures developed in glider towing; that there was no single engine ceiling for the combination, except at sea level; and at an above normal outside temperature; that the glider caused pilot fatigue on long flights; that contact flying alone could keep the glider in relative position to the plane; and that placarded speed of 150 mph for the glider made it unsafe to tow behind faster aircraft. 

First Troop Carrier Command, given the responsibility for ferrying newly manufactured gliders, was assigned Douglas C-47 and C-53 aircraft for the work.  These planes were the commercial DC-3 with strengthened flooring for heavier cargo transport.  The two planes were nearly identical, the C-53 having a regular door in the cargo section, while the C-47 had a double door to facilitate the loading of bulky cargo.  The specifications of the manufacturer were known and operation standards within these limits developed out of a trial and error process because there were no directions for the pilots to follow in early glider towing.  The initial directives for the glider training program did carry a brief outline of procedure for tow plane pilots but it furnished little more than check points and the pilot was required to rely largely on his own judgment.  

Early in 1943 Lockheed C-60 Lodestars began coming from the factory and were assigned to the Flying Training Command for use as tugs in the glider training program.  By summer, a few of these aircraft were assigned to the First Troop Carrier Command to be used in the advanced glider training program at Laurinburg-Maxton AAB, North Carolina,  to supplement the C-47s and C-53s.  The Materiel Command experiments indicated that the C-60 could be used satisfactorily as a tow plane, so far as engine cooling was concerned, provided the minimum indicated air speed was 120 mph.  Troop Carrier pilots, despite previous lack of experience with the C-60, used it interchangeably with the C-47 in training flights.

TABLE VII – Study of performance data for C-47 type aircraft, under various conditions, with CG-4A gliders in tow.     

                                                           

                                                                     Standard Load                     Overload in Plane

                                                           1-CG-4A          1-CG-4A          1-CG-4A           2-CG-4A’s

                                                                     Regular       Paddle                         Paddle               Paddle

                                                                   Props          Props                   Props             Props

Weight of tow plane                                           26000       26000               26000           29000          

Fuel carried, gallons                                               804           804                 804              804

Glider weight, gross                                              7500       7500                 7500             7500                           

                                                            Standard Load                  Overload in Plane

                                                           1-CG-4A      1-CG-4A            1-CG-4A          2-CG-4A’s

                                                                      Regular        Paddle              Padde              Paddle

                                                                   Props            Props                   Props               Props

Take-off

Ground roll, feet                                                 2550        2350                 3500             4000

Take-off over 50 ft. obstacle                                 3950        3600                 5400             6700

Tow plane indicated air speed                                  85            85                     80                80

Climb

Minimum IAS                                                        120          105                   105              105

Initial rate of climb ft./min.                                   455          425                   350              125

Service ceiling                                                  10,800     12,000              11,800            8,000

Time to reach service ceiling (min.)                          38            30                     42                57

Cruising Recommendation

Altitude                                                            5,000       5,000                5,000            2,000

True Air Speed                                                       135          118                   128              122

IAS                                                                       125          105                   115              112

Engine RPM                                                      1,950       1,900                1,900            2,400

Manifold pressure, in. Hg.                                       34            28                     32             34.5

Range and Radius

Still air range, miles                                              830       1,050                   820              535

Still air radius (glider cut at destination,

tow plane returns to base), mi.                               570          660                   565              420

Temperatures (max. centigrade)                              anticipated                       Permissible

Oil    climbing                                                              85                                       95

        cruising                                                                80                                       96

Cylinder head      climbing                                           232                                     232

                           cruising                                          232                                     232

Additional Information

Min. speed for part power climb                              120          105                   105              105

Cruising speed for proper cooling                           120          105                   105              105

Single engine ceiling                                           None       None                 None            None

Rate of sink with one engine ft/min.                      400          100                     -                  -

Distance covered in descent from

recommended cruising alt. 5000 to

alt. at which glider should be released -

2000 in case of engine failure                              16 mi       60mi

a.  A C-47 should not be landed at a gross weight in excess of 26,000 pounds because of reduced landing gear load factors and excessive wear on the brakes.

     

b.  With both plane and glider in a lightly loaded condition, gross weight of the plane 22,000 pounds and glider 4,700 pounds, a single engine ceiling of 4,000 feet may be maintained. 

 

These data emphasize some of the problems which confronted power pilots in the early days of glider towing.  Operating speed range for the C-47 with regular propellers was only 30 mph.  The minimum of 120 mph was set by requirements for proper cooling of the engines.   The maximum of 150 mph was the highest permissible tow speed of the CG-4A.  The use of paddle bladed propellers resulted in several advantages; a shorter take-off run, a greater rate of climb, a higher service ceiling, and a lower speed (105 mph) at which proper cooling should be obtained. 

XVI I - Flying the CG-4A Glider

Before the advanced glider student began his flight training in the CG-4A glider he was required to spend at least one hour in the cockpit familiarizing himself with the aircraft.  He usually noticed three things, the seats were not adjustable either up or down or fore and aft, the roominess of the cockpit, and the excellent visibility.  Because the seats had no padding, student pilots usually sat on the cushion of their AN6510 seat pack parachute.  Parachutes were required in training, and a few glider students used them in emergencies.      

The glider pre-takeoff check list was amazingly simple.  Control locks off, pitot tube uncovered, controls checked for full movement, the Form 1 and 1A checked for glider status, safety belt fastened, 300 pounds of ballast installed behind each pilot position and properly secured, trim tabs set to neutral, meter pin flush in the tow rope release mechanism, altimeter set, brakes off and ailerons in the neutral position.  

Initially, the pilot held the control wheel in the full back position to supply full “up” elevator, so if the tow plane took up the tow rope slack too quickly there would be some assistance in keeping the glider from nosing over and riding on the skids on takeoff.  The tow rope attached to the glider was mounted high on the nose and there was a tendency for the glider to nose over on the initial pull of the tow plane.  As the glider began to move, the control wheel was moved gently forward until the glider was in a level position, rolling on the landing gear.  The pilot applied enough rudder to keep he glider directly behind the tow plane.   Some CG-4As were equipped with a BOGN )Bolt-On Griswold Nose) a protective nose device.  On these gliders the tow rope attachment was mounted in the center of the glider nose and the glider did not nose over on the skids when the slack in the tow rope was taken up by the tow plane on takeoff.     

When the airspeed reached 60 mph the control wheel was gently eased back until the glider climbed to approximately 20 feet above the runway.  At his point it was necessary to ease the control wheel forward so that the glider was in a slight diving attitude to put slack in the tow rope, thus allowing the tow plane to lift off the runway.  The CG-4A was flown not more than 25⁰ up, 20⁰ down or 20⁰ to the right or left of the extended longitudinal axis of the tow plane.

Once the tow plane was airborne the glider was flown level until the tow plane came up to its proper position, which was just below the glider.  If the glider was flown too high immediately after takeoff the tow plane was unable to leave the runway.  The glider student was cautioned to devote his undivided attention to keeping the proper tow position and to signal the copilot or instructor to trim the nose or wings immediately after takeoff if that was desirable.   The more experienced glider pilot could make the takeoff with one hand and trim the glider with the other. 

The takeoff was slightly different when the glider was fully loaded.  The glider pilot had to keep in mind that that the tow plane was dragging 3½ tons of weight, in addition to the full load of the tow plane.  The glider pilot should not increase the drag by climbing too fast during the early stages but should wait until the tow plane had accelerated to its approximate liftoff speed; then by increasing the angle of attack to slowly transfer the weight from the landing gear to the wing so that the glider leaves the ground at approximately the same time as the tow plane.

Glider instructors cautioned glider students that they were sitting approximately 18 inches to the left of the longitudinal axis of the glider by virtue of the side by side seating, and hence the same distance to the left of the point where the tow rope connected.  “By leaning to the right and sighting along the tow rope the glider student could easily see if he was lined up with the center of the tow plane fuselage; if not, he could correct his position accordingly.”  However, it was found that this increased the chances of vertigo; particularly during night flying.  

The danger of taking off in a low tow position was emphasized by the instructors, who explained that “the added drag of the prop wash against the glider could cause tow rope failure.  On takeoff the glider student should always be ready to release the tow rope in the event one of the tow plane’s engines failed or if the tow plane had difficulty leaving the runway.”  If the tow rope were to break the procedure was to immediately climb and hit the tow rope release lever, freeing the glider of the rope.   This prevented dragging the 350 foot tow rope along the ground with the potential of snagging the rope on an obstruction causing the glider to crash.  If a glider was flown low enough to get into the prop wash of the tow plane during takeoff, it was difficult to control and much additional strain was placed n the tow rope.  Flown too high, the tow rope became taut and exerted an upper pull on the tow planes’ tail.  The best position to fly was that which maintained a constant sag in the tow rope and a constant airspeed.

The bank and turn indicator needle was the only cockpit indication of s good towing position.  The needle was centered with the rudder, the ball centered with the aileron, and any pressures could be relieved by proper trimming.  Occasionally, a wing became so heavy that slight pressure would be required on the opposite aileron to maintain proper attitude even with full trim corrections.  In smooth air light pressure on the controls was all that was required.  The CG-4A had a tendency to oscillate on tow, a characteristic not experienced in the sailplanes and light utility gliders in basic training.  The tendency by beginning students was to over correct which only resulted in increasing the oscillation.  The proper procedure was to pick up the low wing with the opposite rudder and use as little aileron as possible.  To stop the oscillation after it had started cross-controlling was necessary.           

In moderate turbulence the tow plane and glider bounced around considerably and heavy pressure and large control movements were required to make the glider respond.  Keeping the glider in the proper tow position required the undivided attention of the glider pilot.  On tows longer than a half an hour it was recommended that the copilot take over for a few minutes to give the pilot a chance to rest his eyes and look around.

Turns presented no particular problem as long as the glider pilot could clearly see the tow plane.  As the tow plane started to bank for a turn, the glider pilot did likewise, matching the angle of bank observed.   Very little control pressure was required to bank a glider.  When the desired bank had been accomplished, a slight pressure in the opposite direction was applied to prevent over banking.  In climbs a glider pilot should maintain his position slightly above the tow plane and during descent moderate use of the spoilers dissipated altitude without excessive diving.  

Indication of surface winds can be quite misleading.  It is well known that a wind velocity of 20-30 mph on the ground can be considerably higher at altitude.   In stronger winds the glide speed should be increased from the normal 70 mph to 100 mph in order to cover any appreciable distance over the ground.  In those conditions the glide ratio can be reduced to as little as 4-5 feet of forward distance to every foot of loss of altitude.  A pilot cutting loose downwind from the field he intends to land in has very little opportunity to plan the approach and land when experiencing high-velocity winds.  If the tow plane failed to put the glider in the proper position on the upwind side at the prearranged altitude for release, the glider pilot could elect to stay on tow until a position was attained from which he could make a safe landing in the designated area.  Except in an emergency, the glider pilot always decided when to release his glider.

Prior to release, the glider was pulled up gently to slightly above the normal tow position and all slack taken out of the tow rope.  The glider was then put in a moderate dive to create slack for releasing.  Excessive speed was used to gain additional altitude if required.  As the airspeed settled down to approximately 70 mph, the trim tabs were adjusted so that the glider would fly “hands off.”

Performing stalls were an integral part of light plane, light gliders and with the CG-4A glider.   They were practiced regularly.  Stalling an aircraft involved pulling back gently on the control stick or wheel until the wing lost lift.   When that occurred the aircraft usually shuttered slight and the nose dropped.  The control wheel was then pushed forward to regain flying speed and then pulled back gently to establish a normal glide speed.  The Lazy-8 maneuver in a glider was not too different from the same maneuver in most powered aircraft.  At 90 to 100 mph the glider was put in a 20⁰ bank toward the checkpoint, and the nose lifted in a coordinated climbing turn. As a near-stall condition was reached at the top of the “8”, the nose was eased through the checkpoint; during the downward swing almost full aileron travel was required to maintain the proper attitude, and this pressure gradually eased off as the glider gained the speed necessary for the second half of the “8”.  This was the only maneuver the CG-4A was stressed for other than steep turns and gentle stalls.  Under no conditions was a pilot allowed to spin a CG-4A or get the nose high enough for a “whip stall.”  However, unauthorized spins and loops were performed by Lt. Colonel Michael C. Murphy, head of glider training at Headquarters, 1^st Troop Carrier Command and a few other pilots, against the recommendations of the manufacturer.

XVIII - Graduation:

Following the completion of advanced training, glider students were promoted from Staff Sergeant to Flight Officer and awarded their sterling silver wings with a prominent “G” embossed on the face of the shield on the wings.  The Flight officer rank was a wartime rank equivalent to that of the Army’s Junior Grade Warrant Officer, but with the base pay of a Second Lieutenant.  A Flight Officer with less than 3 years’ service earned $150 in base pay, $75 in flight pay, a $60 rental allowance and a $42 subsistence allowance, for a total of $327 monthly.  They earned an additional 20% in overseas pay while commissioned officers earned 10%.   A very small percentage of the top students in a graduating class were promoted to Second Lieutenant, while student officers who went through the training in grade, retained that grade upon graduation.  

XIX- Tactical Glider Training:

There were only two air bases providing tactical glider training; Bowman Field in Louisville, Kentucky, and Laurinburg-Maxton Army Air Base in Maxton, North Carolina.  Bowman Field, initially the Glider Pilot Combat Training Center, ultimately becoming the Glider Crew Training Center,  was eventually phased out and all tactical training moved to LMAAB.  Tactical glider training was much more intensive and more physically demanding than glider pilots had experienced previously.    It was divided into four phases with a week devoted to each phase. 

Phase I - First Week - Orientation

In the first week of tactical training the student received refresher orientation and familiarization training in the CG-4A with the glider containing 75% of the normal load.   Students were required to practice pattern flights regularly with a release altitude of 400 feet, and executing a 180 degree approach, sometimes using two 90 degree turns. During this practice students were instructed to perform the following check and practice the following maneuvers:   

01.  Pre-flight check, including Form 1 and 1A.

02.  Correct method of take-off stressing normal climb to a position out of the disturbed air approximately 20 feet above the ground.

03.   Correct position of glider during towed flight, approximately 10 feet above tow plane to eliminate disturbed air in the form of wing-wake, etc.

04.   Demonstrate maximum angular distance of tow above, below and to one side, stressing the fact that the tow ship can be handled and a straight flight path cannot be maintained by the tow pilots when the glider is flying at a much greater angle than normal.  

05.   Demonstrate relaxation during towed flight.  Stress alertness and minimum use of controls.  Demonstrate flying without the use of the rudder in towed flight, and explain that this may be done at the option of the student and that it will improve relaxation.  Students should be advised that the automatic tow mechanism flies the glider perfectly without rudder corrections. 

06.   Demonstrate tactical release, with the glider at approximately the level of the tow ship, and releasing without attempting to put slack in the tow rope.  Stress the importance of maintaining level flight until excess speed is dissipated to that of a normal glide.

07.   Demonstrate and permit the student to practice stalls and stall recovery with minimum loss of altitude.  Do not allow the glider to dive in the recovery.

08.   Allow student pilots to demonstrate their ability in steep and medium turns, checking and assisting them in maintaining a constant air speed.

09.   Demonstrate the forward slip and recovery.  Explain to the student that this will be elaborated on in a later phase.

10.   Approach to landing will be a 180 degree side approach, using two 90 degree turns. Stress normal glide speed throughout.

11.   Three point landing will be effected, and use of brakes demonstrated, keeping glider off nose (First step of emergency stopping technique).

Note:  During night flight, should the pilot lose sight of the tow plane or lose orientation to the tow plane, he should immediately level his glider by checking earth and skyline and then fly in the direction indicated by the tow rope.                                       

Phase II - Week 2 - Landing Patterns

Students practiced tactical landing patterns the second week.  They were also taught the importance of briefings, air discipline and the use of alternative flight maneuvers.  All landings during the second week were made over a fifteen foot obstacle.  Throughout all approaches, students were encouraged to judge normal glide speeds down to and over an obstacle, and to introduce accuracy without depending on slips.  Pilots were instructed to maintain a position during the approach that would permit them to turn to one side of an obstacle and not go through the obstacle if they misjudged their pattern.  Glider pilots should not have to depend on using slips to permit them to land and stop at the designated spot on the airfield. 

Briefings were important in understanding all aspects of a mission.  Students were also compelled to take notes during briefings due to the important part they play in tactical operations.  During the second week one or more 300 foot releases should be practiced to demonstrate 135 degree approaches.  This approach eliminates the possibility of succeeding aircraft running upon gliders in free flight.  Also, should a formation when nearing the intended landing zone be out of position for a 180 degree approach the glider pilot would be able to make a 45 degree turn soon after releasing, putting him in a position for a normal 90 degree approach.  Throughout the second week the glider student should concentrate on the landing spot after releasing.  180 and 135 degree patterns at altitudes between 200 and 500 feet were also practiced. 

The second week program covered the forward slip.  Much can be said about slips and the various methods of slipping.   It was emphasized that all glider pilots should use the left forward slip.  The reason for slipping to the left was to give the pilot better unobstructed visibility to his intended landing point, and allow the copilot to automatically know in what position to look for other aircraft.

Glider pilots were taught to land in trail, maintaining a straight glide path.  If all gliders did not follow the standard pattern, the following gliders would not be able to anticipate the preceding glider’s move, causing confusion.   Slipping up-wind is desirable, but should an emergency arise, where the pilot cannot obtain the maximum degree of slip without turning, then he was allowed to change from a left slip to a right slip and return to a left slip cautioning that no turns should be allowed nor any deviation from a straight glide path. 

During slips glider pilots should note that the CG-4A could use more rudder.  If banked too steeply in the slip, and held in that position, the glider would start to turn.  When this occurred, the pilot should maintain direction of flight using full rudder by decreasing the degree of bank with the ailerons, and the aircraft will immediately straighten out and continue in a straight glide path. At first, glider pilots should not practice slips too low to the ground, and should be warned as to the possibility of contacting the ground during slips.  Until they become more familiar with slips, glider pilots should not slip closer than 15 feet above the ground.   It may at times be necessary to use a level flight slip to reduce the glide speed.  This could be done in case of emergencies on both down-wind and cross-wind legs of a pattern.      

         

During the second week minimum speed three-point landings and glider dispersal was stressed at all times.  

Phase III - Third Week - Pattern Proficiency and Elementary Formation

The third week was dedicated to the introduction of all possible landing patterns.  In tactical operations, often times the tow pilots will not be able to navigate to within the limited distance for certain planned approaches.  It was altogether possible that the approach to the intended landing area was made from an unpremeditated direction, and tug pilots and glider pilots may not recognize the area until directly over it.  Therefore, it is natural to assume the glider pilot will release, using a 360 degree triangular approach to the landing area.  If the approach is directly over the landing area and the direction of the formation is cross-wind, the glider pilot would release and affect a 270 degree landing pattern.  If, of course, the approach is from the downwind side, as undoubtedly would be planned, a 180 degree approach would be used.  It was inadvisable to attempt to plan a straight approach because at a low altitude the pilots would be unable to see their landing area before it was too late to release, thus causing them to overshoot.

In the latter part of this phase elementary formation was introduced.  Flying single tow, formations were two ship elements in a right echelon position, or three elements in right echelon.  At this point in their tactical training glider students should be proficient in glide angle, glide speed, and landing in a restricted area.  Briefings should be given frequently and pilots checked for their ability to absorb and accept the use of alternate plans, and judgment in general should be observed closely.

During this phase regular flights with releases at 400 feet with 270 degree approaches to the landing area, using slips when necessary.  Additionally, practice should be conducted with releases at 500 feet and making a 360 degree triangular approach as outlined in the previous lesson for the 270 degree approach.  Glider pilots must remember that that the down-wind leg of the 360 degree approach will prohibit the pilot from looking at his intended landing point.  He should, therefore, pick a point some distance away from the intended landing point and judge by this until such time as he turns on the base leg, keeping a mental picture so that he is oriented to the intended landing spot.  If on a dual tow, it would be well to follow in trail.  However, each pilot should judge his own pattern and approach and not depend on the other pilot in flight. 

The elementary formation was not considered a tactical maneuver.  It was strictly a training exercise to acquaint pilots with formation flying.  This maneuver consisted of a 3,000 foot altitude release from a three-ship element formation in right echelon.  Following take-off, the tow pilots effected a a 180 degree turn using a 10 to 15 degree bank, and picking up each succeeding aircraft after the 180 degree turn.  The three-ship element would climb in formation to 3,000 feet and when directly over the intended landing area (which will be a 600 by 600 foot square, surrounded by a 15 foot obstacle), each pilot would release and immediately execute a 45 degree turn to the left.  The lead glider would reduce his speed to the normal glide speed, and each succeeding glider would follow in trail, maintaining a spacing of approximately 300 feet between gliders.  Should any glider fall behind the one preceding him, he was obviously going too slow and not following directly in trail. 

Throughout the elementary formation, which is a spiral with each glider following in trail, the glider pilots will exercise their judgment by keeping in position.  Position can be held by flying a smaller arc or a greater arc than the preceding glider, or at times by using a slight level flight slip.  When the altitude is reached where it becomes necessary for any one glider to be on the base leg, the pilot must be on alert for other gliders in formation, but start his approach at his own discretion.

Upon landing, the lead glider will disperse to the far right or left corner, as instructed during the briefing, and each succeeding glider will disperse with wing tips approximately 10 to15 feet apart.  When the front row is completed, a second row may be started in accordance with the briefing, using the same dispersal plan.  It was highly important that all gliders be landed in the direction outlined in the briefing.  No crossing of glider paths or the angle approach to the landing area can be tolerated.  If the glider pilot could not glide to the landing area without an angle approach, thereby running an interception problem to the other glider in formation, he was instructed to land outside the landing area in another portion of the air field, and free other gliders in formation to land as planned.  

It was of utmost importance that air discipline, planning, alertness, and constant normal glides be stressed.  Pilots should also be alerted to the importance of immediately effecting the 45 degree turn left in order to clear the succeeding tow planes and gliders.  During the formation flight while on tow, glider pilots will experience considerable propeller –wash and wing-wake of preceding elements.  Should at any time the glider pilot finds himself with a wing low and the glider not responding to aileron control, he should immediately but gradually raise or lower his position on tow until his controls become effective.  In the past a number of glider pilots have released from the tow plane because they assumed their glider was uncontrollable.  This, of course, was unnecessary if they were instructed in how to correct their tow position and render their controls effective.  

Phase IV - Fourth Week - Formation and Tactical Problems

The fourth week acquainted pilots with formation flying and tactical problems, simulating actual maneuvers.  Throughout this phase pilots were allowed to put into practice formation tactical releases and all patterns they had learned previously.  When formation is referred to in this section, unless otherwise specified, it will be dual tow elements in right echelon in columns with 700 to 1,000 feet separating elements.     

Numerous formation fights were conducted the fourth week landing on the air field in a marked restricted area or glider tactical training area with a release altitude of 300 feet using 180 degree and 270 degree approaches.   It was stressed that 135 degree, 180 degree and 270 degree approaches be used more than other types both for night and day operational landings.  The following points were stressed and graded very carefully throughout this phase:

            01.  Preparation for flight – cover pre-flight checks, loading, lashing and Forms 1 and 1A.

02.  Takeoff and ability to maintain with ease the proper position on tow.

03. Recoveries from slipstreams or prop-wash banks.

04. Tactical release at correct location (Note: no pre-determined spot)

05. Alertness for other gliders and tow ships in formation, immediately following release.

06.  Ability to plan and follow in trail in pattern, keeping preceding glider in in field of vision while concentrating on landing area.

07.  Stress normal glide.                                                             

08.  Alertness to all gliders in formation throughout glide pattern and landing. 

09.  Stress that grader should estimate whether pilot in flying his own pattern or being influenced by other pilots in the formation who may be wrong.

10.  Observe slips.  Determine whether slips were used in a manner to derive maximum reduction in speed and altitude and not hamper or disturb other gliders flying the same mission.

11.  Check landing and emergency stop technique.

12.  Notice if alternates were considered and used when necessary.

13.  Check student’s ability to follow and accept briefing and also whether or not he accepts benefit of critiques.    

The most dangerous part of tactical training at Laurinburg-Maxton AAB, North Carolina,  occurred at night when multiple gliders participated in a tactical training exercise.  One can imagine the hazard associated with multiple CG-4As in free flight on a pitch-black night each planning to land in a relatively small area lit only by a single smudge pot.  This training exercise was performed with as many as 20-25 gliders that arrived at the release point at intervals of approximately 30 seconds.  The procedure was to make your turn, line up with the light from the smudge pot and proceed to land.  When the glider came to a complete stop the copilot jumped out, picked up the smudge pot, ran under the right wing  the glider and placed the lighted pot 15 feet outboard of the right wing tip.   The following glider would then have a designated parking position. 

It was not unusual for a pilot turning on final to line up with the smudge pot when abruptly it would move erratically approximately 100 feet to the right.  Taking this element of surprise into consideration during his mental calculations he immediately readjusted his estimate of where he wanted to land and realigned the glider on final approach, so that he would wind up with the smudge pot under his left wing tip.  During the landing roll he might see the light move again to his right.  Not infrequently after one of these tactical exercises the program was shut down for a day or two so that maintenance could catch up on repairing damaged gliders.        

Graduation maneuvers were conducted simulating actual missions day and night.  All missions had to strictly follow general problems written to simulate actual Field Orders.  

XX- Aerial Retrieval of Gliders

The ability to retrieve gliders from the ground by an aircraft on the fly proved to be feasible and economically beneficial during World War II.  Many gliders that were undamaged or reparable were snatched from most of the combat landing zones by C-47 tow planes and returned to service.  Glider pilots referred to the aerial retrieval technique as “Snatch Pickup,” and the name stuck.  When the CG-4A was snatched from the ground it accelerated from 0 to 120 miles per hour in 6 to 7 seconds, but because of the elasticity of the nylon rope and the action of the pickup winch in the tow plane the “G” forces were reduced considerably.

The AAF aerial pickup system was developed for the AAF by All American Aviation, Inc. of Wilmington, Delaware and was accepted in October 1942.  However, the AAA Model 80 system, the first system capable of retrieving a CG-4A, was not tested until the first half of 1943.  The Model 80 package, consisted of a winch containing 1000 feet of 3/8 inch steel cable and a 20 foot boom attached externally to the pilot’s side of the C-47 fuselage.  The winch cable ran through guides to the external wooden boom and then to a hook at the end of the boom.  The system functioned much like a fishing rod and reel.   A 225 foot length of 13/16^th inch nylon rope was attached to the glider, while the other end was fashioned into a closed loop that was stretched between two poles 12 feet high and spaced 20 feet apart. 

The tow plane flew low over the pickup station with the boom and hook lowered below the aircraft.   As the tow plane passed the pickup station with the boom and hook lowered the hook on the boom engaged the closed loop rope attached to the glider.   At that moment the tow pilot poured on the power and climbed steeply dragging the glider behind it.  The pickup energy absorbing winch in the C-47 had a friction brake that could be adjusted to the weight of the glider being retrieved.  The amount of cable played out was directly proportional to the weight of the glider.  Under most circumstances less than 600 feet of cable was played out.  Once the friction brake was applied the winch started reeling in the cable until the nylon rope was reached.  No exact number of gliders retrieved by this method is known, but the number exceeded 500.  

Many undamaged or slightly damaged gliders that could have been recovered were damaged beyond repair by German shelling, high winds, wanton damage by airborne troopers seeking souvenirs, and local civilian near the LZs who simply stripped the glider of anything useful to them, including the tires.   Many airborne troopers simply took out their knife and cut out a piece of fabric for a souvenir and stuffed it in their musette bag.    

XXI - Development of  a Glider Auto Pilot

In 1942 planners in the Glider Branch in Washington, DC saw a need for an automatic flight control system for gliders to relieve the strain on pilots during lengthy combat and training flights.   Military strategists predicted that some of the combat flights would be over 3 hours in duration.  Flying a heavily loaded glider for that length of time was extremely tiring even if the copilot flew the glider half the time.   On those combat missions with only one pilot, especially in turbulent air, would be back breaking and beyond the endurance of some glider pilots.   Based on this knowledge, the Glider Branch at Wright Field set about developing an autopilot system for Army Air Force gliders.      

In their quest for a suitable system Wright Field engineers learned that the British were using what they referred to as an “Angle of Dangle” system in their gliders to properly orient the pilot while on tow during blind flying conditions and on long flights.  An angle of dangle gyroscopic instrument in the cockpit of their gliders showed the pilot whether the glider was in proper alignment behind the tow plane.  The system performed well and allowed the British to boast that they had the only glider fleet equipped for blind flying.

A number of devices were evaluated by Wright engineers, i.e., (1) Auto Tow, (2) Angle of Dangle, (3) A-3 Auto-Tow, (4) Infra-red, (5) Halsted Tow, and (6) the D-1 Auto Pilot.  Some of these systems were developed by the Glider Branch at Wright Field, while others were designed and manufactured by commercial companies.  After a thorough evaluation by the Glider Branch only the Auto Tow and D-1 Autopilot systems were deemed suitable for further testing and evaluation.

The Auto-Tow system, developed in the latter part of 1942, mechanically controlled the flight attitude of the glider on tow.  It consisted of a fishing rod type sensor that was attached to the tow rope with a clip, a gyroscope, a black box and a special cockpit mounted ILS (Instrument Landing System) type instrument that contained horizontal and vertical crosshairs.  These crosshairs showed the pilot whether he was to the right or left or above or below the tow plane.  The object was to keep both crosshairs centered.   A small propeller-driven generator mounted on the outside of the glider provided the power to operate the gyroscope.  System tests began in late 1942 under the direction of Project manager, Lt. Adam Stolzenberger at Clinton County Army Air Field in Wilmington, Ohio.  Tests revealed that the system had limitations.  It was thoroughly flight tested by Glider Branch test pilots at CCAAF, and subsequently field tested at Laurinburg-Maxton AAB, NC in late 1943.  It was deemed unsuitable for gliders and never adapted for general use.

The Jack and Heinz D-1 autopilot system consisted of a device to sense the position of the glider in relation to the tow rope.  The sensor was as arm attached to the differential tow position indicator in the nose of the glider.  This indicator actuated a series of hydraulic cylinders that were attached to the control cables of the glider by another series of pulleys.  The free end of the four or five foot long arm straddled the tow rope with inverted “V” fingers containing a spring clip to hold the tow rope more firmly.  When the tow rope changed position relative to the glider, the amount and direction of the motion was detected by the differential tow position indicator and transferred to the glider controls.  Like the Auto Tow system, the D-1 Auto Pilot was never accepted for general in gliders.                                                                             

 XXII - Powered CG-4A and CG-15A Gliders:

The WACO CG-4A glider proved to be rugged enough that Air Force visionaries decided that it would make an excellent short range cargo aircraft by adding a power package to a small number of them.  This would relieve the overburdened C-47 and C-46 fleet from this task.  Wright field engineers envisioned that adding engines would also relieve some of strain on tow planes during takeoffs, and would permit the glider to reach its destination in the event the tow plane was damaged or shot down by enemy flak or ground fire.

In early 1943 a change order was issued to Northwestern Aeronautical Corporation’s glider contract to design and add two 125 horsepower Franklin engines to CG-4A, ASN: 43-27315.  Tests were performed to determine if the XPG-1, as the powered glider was designated, could take off and land under its own power.  It did so after a long run on a paved runway, but the ascent was slow and time consuming.  A second CG-4A, ASN: 42-58090, designated the XPG-2, was equipped with two 175 horsepower Ranger engines and attained a maximum speed of 135 mph.  Later in 1943, the 175 horsepower engines on the XPG-2 were replaced with 200 horsepower Ranger engines.  One XPG-2 was assembled at the Glider Mechanics School at Sheppard Field, Texas, and sent to Clinton County Army Air Field in Wilmington, Ohio, for evaluation. 

In the spring of 1944, a contract was negotiated with WACO to convert CG-15A, ASN: 44-90986, a cut down version of the WACO CG-4A, to a powered glider, designated the XPG-3, by adding two 230 horsepower Jacobs radial engines.  All of the static and flights tests proved satisfactory.  Extant records indicate that at least fourteen powered gliders were contracted for or built.  Those contracted for included 1 each XPG-1, 2 each XPG-2As, 10 each PG-2As, and 1 each XPG-3.  It was ultimately determined that there was no tactical need for a powered glider, but if the occasion arose they were feasible and available for production.  

CG-4A Variants    

XCG-4A ……….. Two prototypes were built, plus one stress test glider.

CG-4A ………….This glider became the G-4 in 1948, 13,903 were built.

XCG-4B ……….. One all-wooden glider was built.

XPG-1 …………. One CG-4A converted with 2 Franklin 6AC-298-N3 engines by NW Aero Corporation in St. Paul, Minnesota.

XPG-2 …………. One CG-4A converted with 2 175 hp L-440-1 engines by Ridgefield, NJ.

XPG-2A ……….. 2 XPG-2A changed to 200 hp; 1 CG-4A converted to 200hp engines.

PG-2A  ………... PG-2A with two 200 hp L-440-7.  Ten PG-2As built by NW in 1948.

XPG-2B ……….  Cancelled variant with two R-775-9 engines.

LRW-1 ………… 13 CG-4As transferred to the United States Navy.

G-2A …………..  PG-2A re-designated in 1948.

G-4A …………..  CG-4A re-designated in 1948.

G-4C …………..  G-4A with different tow bar, there were 35 conversions.

XXII – Sicily Mission

9 -14, July1943

Operation Ladbroke, the invasion of Sicily, was a nighttime British glider operation with glider pilots from the British Glider Pilot Regiment flying American Waco CG-4A gliders, with 24 volunteer American glider pilots flying as copilots.  This was unprecedented since night glider assaults were not part of British airborne doctrine.  Major General Matthew B. Ridgway, commander of the 82^nd Airborne Division, cabled Brigadier General Maxwell Taylor in North Africa before the scheduled mission, urging him to persuade General Eisenhower’s planners to change the mission from night to early dawn.  His plea was denied.  By 13 June 1943, 346 of the 500 CG-4As shipped to North Africa that March had been assembled by glider pilots and others.  Only 136 of the 360 were used for Operation Ladbroke that also included 8 British Airspeed Horsa gliders, 111 C-47s, 25 British Albemarles and 8 Halifax bombers.  42 American glider pilots volunteered to train the British glider pilots in the CG-4A.  They were placed on detached service to the British Glider Pilot Regiment.  The 144 gliders participating in Operation Ladbroke were towed from six Tunisian airfields at 1842 hours on 9 July 1943 by C-47s and C-53s of the 51^st Trop Carrier Wing.  Shortly after takeoff six tow planes turned back because of shifting loads in gliders, another turned back when the jeep it was carrying broke loose from its tie downs.  Further into the mission three more gliders broke loose when the formation ran into strong winds and extremely turbulent air, and vanished with all hands.  Two other tow planes became lost and returned to Tunisia.  High winds at the release point coupled with inexperienced tow pilots led to 69 gliders being released too far from the coast of Sicily and were unable to make landfall.  605 officers and men were lost, 326 presumed to have drowned.  Only 49 CG-4As and 5 Horsas landed on Sicilian soil within a 10 mile radius of their LZs (Landing Zones).  Allegedly, only 5 CG-4As and 2 British Horsas actually landed on their designated LZs.  To make matters worse, eleven American C-47s and C-53s loaded with paratroopers were shot out of the sky by friendly fire from Allied ships participating in the invasion.  American Major General Joseph M. Swing, cited five major mission weaknesses; (1) Insufficient time spent in coordinating the air routes with all forces, (2) Complexity of the flight route and the low degree of training for the navigators, (3) The rigid naval policy of firing at any and all aircraft, (4) the unfortunate timing of the airdrops directly after extensive enemy air attacks, and (5) the failure of some army ground commanders to warn all antiaircraft units of the impending airborne operations.  Six American glider pilots were killed in action.  In spite of the many difficulties encountered the objectives were taken and the mission considered a success.  In his report to General Eisenhower, British General “Boy” Browning placed all of the blame on American Troop Carrier crews.  Ironic, since another extenuating factor was the fact that the British glider pilots received only 4.5 hours of training in the CG-4A, only 1.2 hours of it at night.  Eight CG-4As and 11 Horsa gliders were used in the second aerial phase of the Sicily invasion on D-Day, 13-14 July 1943.

Data Sources:

1.   ”Silent Wings,” Gerard M. Devlin, first published in Great Britain by W. H. Allen, in

      1985.

2.   “Drop Zone Sicily,” William B. Breuer, published by Presidio Press, Novato, CA  in

        1997.

3.   “Sicily Invasion – WWII Air Tragedy,” taken from the July/August 1967 issue of Popular Aviation Magazine.

4.   “The Glider War,” James E. Mrazek, published by St. Martin’s Press, NY, in 1975.

XXIII – Burma Invasion

5 -11 March 1944

The 5318^th Provisional Air Unit (subsequently designated the 1^st Air Commando Group), commanded by Colonel Philip G. Cochran, launched Operation Thursday, the invasion of Burma, on 5 Marcy 1944.  The first two gliders in the 60 glider serial, all on double tow, lifted off from Lalaghat, India, at 1842 hours.  Colonel John R. Anderson, co-commander of the 1ACG flew the lead glider.  Their destination was a jungle clearing named “Broadway,” located 200 miles away (24-45 AF), 31^st Squadron (RAF), 62^nd Squadron (RAF), 117^th Squadron (RAF) and the 194^th Squadron (RAF).  Sixty-three gliders were originally planned for the Broadway serial, but General Slim reduced the number to sixty.  The gliders carried resolute Chindit soldiers armed with Tommy guns, carbines, rifles, pistols, and hand grenades.  All of them unwittingly carried considerable extra ammunition grossly overloading the gliders, making them dangerous to fly.  Problems began to develop immediately after takeoff.  Four more CG-4As crashed shortly after takeoff, two more were cut loose over Lalaghat when the tow plane developed electrical problems, and two were released over Imphal when their tow plane experienced such high fuel consumption that Broadway was not attainable.  More problems developed when tow ropes began to fail.  Only 37 of the 60 gliders landed at Broadway.  34 of the 37 were heavily damaged on landing.   The three flyable gliders were later recovered by snatch pickup.  Broadway was strewn with the wreckage of CG-4As caused by deep ruts, stumps and water buffalo holes hidden in elephant grass.  Doug Wilmer contends in his video, “G” Stands for Guts, that only 54 gliders took off and 39 of them made it to Broadway.  Fifteen gliders, he said, were lost because of snapped tow ropes.  Wilmer interviewed glider pilots Harry McKaig and Harlie Johnson who flew the Broadway mission.  Harry McKaig said that he flew 28 snatch pickup missions evacuating the wounded.  539 people, three mules, and 29,972 pounds of supplies were delivered to Broadway.  Eleven glider pilots were killed during Operation Thursday and approximately 18 were injured.  One glider carried a small 4,139 pound airborne bulldozer.  31 men were killed at Broadway, 30 seriously injured and 238 badly shaken up, but able to do light duty.  On 6 March 1944, a 12 glider serial lead by Jackie Coogan (the child movie star) was towed from Lalaghat to Chowringhee and the following day an additional 5 gliders were towed there.  All were single tows.  Eleven gliders crash landed with no serious injuries.  The twelfth glider flew into a tree killing all aboard.  The after action report stated that the mission was considered a success.               

Data Sources:

          1.  “Any Place, Any Time, Any Where,” R. D. Wagner, published by Schiffer Military Aviation History, Atglen Pennsylvania, in 1998.

           2.  “Silent Wings,” by Gerard Devlin, published by St, Martin’s Press, NYC, NY in 1985.

           3.  “The Glider War,” by James E. Mrazek, published by St. Martin’s Press, NY, in 1975.

          

XXIV – Normandy Mission  

6 June 1944

A total of 514 gliders were used in the Normandy invasion, 292 CG-4As and 222 British Horsa gliders flown by American glider pilots.  Only the American assault beaches will be discussed.  Some reports indicate that 517 gliders were used, but this is believed to be incorrect.  By February 1944, a total of 2100 crated WACO CG-4As had been shipped to England from American factories.  At General Henry “Hap” Arnold’s urging, the first of these gliders had arrived in May 1943.  American cargo ships delivered the crated gliders to the port at Southampton.  From there they were transported by rail and lorries to the glider storage and assembly area at Crookham Common, 40 miles southwest of London, where they were assembled by glider mechanics of the 26^th Reclamation and Repair Squadron.  At the time of the Normandy invasion each Troop Carrier Group was authorized 64 C-47 aircraft and a reserve of 25% totaling 80 aircraft, and 156 CG-4A gliders.  Prior to the invasion, during the night of 11-12 May 1944, the Allies conducted a full scale dry run in preparation for the invasion of Normandy, France.   The dry run was called “Operation Eagle.”  Before D-Day the IX Troop Carrier Command had 2,000 glider pilots on hand.  According to Jack Kramer of the 441^st Trop Carrier Group, 1,034 of them flew the Normandy mission.  The U.S. Army film, “Drop Zone Normandy,” reported that the fields the gliders landed in were 900 to 1500 in length and averaged 500 feet in width.  The fields were surrounded by hedgerows on which 15 to 75 feet trees grew, as well as dense hedges.  The release altitude of the gliders was 400 to 600 feet.  Operation Neptune, the airborne phase of Operation Overlord, consisted of six major glider serials; Chicago, Detroit, Keokuk, Elmira, Galveston and Hackensack.  Gliders delivered 4.047 troops to the battle field, 412,477 pounds of combat equipment and supplies, 281 jeeps and 110 artillery pieces.   Some of the gliders were fitted with 8 foot deceleration parachutes and at least 288 were fitted with the bolt-on Griswold nose that protected the pilot and copilot from frontal damage when landing.  Many of the gliders landed outside of their designated landing zones because tow pilots became disoriented and gave the glider pilots the green light to release too soon or too late.   Records on file at the National WWII Glider Pilots Association show that 48 glider pilots were KIAs in the Normandy invasion.  Brigadier General Don F. Pratt, assistant division commander of the 101^st Airborne Division, was killed on D-Day when the glider he was a passenger in slammed into a hedgerow at high speed.  He died from a broken neck.  He was the highest ranking Allied officer killed on D-Day.  Even with all the foul-ups, Operation Overlord was a success.  All of the objectives were taken, albeit a bit late in some cases. 

Date Sources:

1.  “June 6, 1944,” by Gerald Astor, published by St. Martin’s Press, NYC, New York in 1994.

2.  “Silent Wings,” by Gerard Devlin, published by St. Martin’s Press, NYC, New York, in 1985.

3.  “Drop Zone Normandy,” by Napier Crookenden, publ. by Charles Scribner’s and Sons, NY in 1976. 

4.   “D-Day - June 6, 1944,” by Stephen E. Ambrose, publ. by Simon & Schuster, New York, in 1994.

5.   “Green Light,” by Martin Wolfe, published by University of PA Press, Philadelphia, in 1989.

XXV – Southern France Mission:

15 August 1944

News of Operation Dragoon, the invasion of Southern France, was the worst kept secret of World War II.   A total of 407 gliders were used for this mission that began on 15 August 1944.  At least one report indicates that 409 gliders were used.  All CG-4As were on double tow.  Six hundred glider pilots were sent to Italy in advance of Operation Dragoon.  40 CG-4As flown by British glider pilots, towed by C-47s from the 435^th Troop Carrier Group, took off from Voltone, Italy beginning at 0400 hours.  35 British Horsas flown by British glider pilots and towed by C-47s from the 436^th Troop Carrier Group took off from Tarquina, Italy beginning at 0518 hours.  They were recalled because of ground fog at the landing zone.  Two of the gliders were forced down on the return trip.  The mission was remounted in the afternoon, arriving over the LZ at 1745 hours.  Both British missions were code named Operation Bluebird.  Thirty-three of the Operation Bluebird CG-4As landed on the LZ.  Six others failed to arrive at the LZ for various reasons.  One glider disintegrated in mid-air killing all aboard.  332 CG-4As flown by American glider pilots were towed from airfields in western Italy, between Galero and Fallonica, beginning at 1510 hours.   They were towed by C-47s from the 62^nd, 64^th 438^th, 439^th, 440^th, 441^st and 442^nd Troop Carrier Groups.   The American mission was code named Operation Dove.  The gliders were towed in seven waves.  At least one American glider pilot, Bud Klimek, flew an early model CG-4A with only one set of controls.  The airborne element of Operation Dragoon was referred to as the 1^st Airborne Task Force.  Some gliders were released between 2,000 and 3,000 feet when congestion developed in the glider release area.  Gliders in the rear began to overrun gliders in front causing a deadly situation.  There were midair collisions.  None of the CG-4As used in Operation Dove was equipped with the protective Griswold nose.  No effort was apparently made to recover a single American or British glider used in the Southern France invasion.  Extant records indicate that one American glider pilot was KIA on 14 August 1944, nineteen on 15 August 1944 and one on 18 August 1944, while approximately sixty-three were wounded or injured in action.  The airborne success of Operation Dragoon was impressive, despite miscues, and it was clear in mid-1944, even to the most earthbound skeptics, that Troop Carrier and airborne forces were making a major contribution to the Allied war effort.

Data Sources:

           1.  “Silent Wings,” by Gerard Devlin, published by St. Martin’s Press, NYC, NY in 1985.

             2.  “The Glider War,”  by James E. Mrazek, published by St. Martin’s  Press, NYC, NY, in 1975.

           3.  “Green Light,” by Martin Wolfe, published by University of PA Press, Philadelphia, in 1989.

XXVI – Holland Mission:

26 – 28 September 1944

More gliders were used in the Holland invasion than any other World War II glider mission.  The overall mission was code named Operation Market-Garden, Market being the airborne phase and Garden being the ground phase.  A total of 1,899 CG-4A gliders were used in the Holland invasion.  1,618 of them landed safely.  The American objective was to take and hold bridges from Eindhoven to Nijmegen so the British XXX Corps could speed tanks and infantrymen to Arnhem.  There were not enough American glider pilots in the theater to provide copilots, so untrained glider troopers occupied the right seat for this mission.  To meet minimum needs and additional 150 glider pilots were flown from the states just days before D-Day.  70 CG-4As from the airfield at Chilbolton, England, took off behind C-47s of the 437^th Troop Carrier Group at 1110 hours on 17 September 1944 and headed for Holland.  Two minutes later, 50 CG-4As followed towed by C-47s of the 439^th Troop Carrier Group from an airfield at Balderton, England.  The following day, 18 September 1944, 450 CG-4As were towed to Holland from airfields at Aldermaston, Welford, Membury, Chilbolton, Greenham Common and an unnamed airfield, beginning at 1120 hours.  Eleven minutes earlier, 454 CG-4As were towed off behind C-47s of the 61^st, 313^th, 315^th, 439^th, 440^th and 441^st Troop Carrier Groups English bases for Holland.  Beginning at 1437 hours on 19 September 1944, 385 CG-4As departed airfields at Aldermaston, Welford, Membury, Chilbolton, and Greenham Common were towed to Holland.   On D-Day plus 3, 20 September 1944,, only one CG-4A from the 53^rd Troop Carrier Wing was towed to Holland, departing from an unknown airfield at 1430 hours.  Three days later, beginning at 1200 hours, 84 CG-4As from the 436^th Troop Carrier Group at Membury and the 438^th at Greenham Common were towed to Holland by C-47s.  That same day, 23 September 1944, 406 CG-4As towed by C-47s of the 61^st, 313^th, 316^th and the 434^th  Troop Carrier Groups from airfields at Barkston Heath, Folkingham, Cottesmore and Chilbolton respectively took off beginning at 1210 hours headed for Holland.  Glider landings were made on LZ “W” near Eindhoven carrying 101^st Airborne Division troops.  It was 1½ miles north of Zon and west of the north-south main road from Eindhoven.  The 82^nd Airborne Division glider landings near Nijmegen were on LZ “T” and LZ “N”, which were joined together in an oblong shape,  3½ miles north to south and 1½ miles east to west.  Nine gliders towed by the 61^st Troop Carrier Group to LZ “T” were mistakenly towed 12 miles into Germany, east-southeast of LZ “T”.  They were never seen again.  Of the 1,899 gliders used in Operation Market only 281 were salvageable.  118 salvageable gliders were destroyed in a storm before they could be removed from the LZs.  Several military sources stated that as many as 700 of the gliders were equipped with the bolt on Griswold protective nose or the Corey Skid, and as many as 900 were fitted with the 8’ deceleration parachute.  According to the data base of the NWWIIGPA 31 American glider pilots were killed in action in Operation Market.  As many as 123 glider pilots were wounded or injured in action.  Some were captured by the Germans and became POWs.  The Americans took all their objectives, but the British failed to take Arnhem. However, British General Montgomery declared the mission 90% successful.  

Data Sources:

           1.  “Silent Wings,” by Gerard M. Devlin, published by St. Martin’s Press, NYC, NY,                              in 1985.

2.  “The Glider War,” by James E. Mrazek, published by St. Martin’s Press, NYC, NY, in 1975.

3.   “Green Light,” by Martin Wolfe, published by University of PA Press, Philadelphia, in 1989.

XXVII – Battle of the Bulge Mission:

26-28 December 1944

The glider operation was known as Operation Kangeroo.  Two combat missions were flown on 26 December 1944.  A lone CG-4A took off from Orleans, France (A-50) at 1025 hours towed by a C-47 from the 440^th Troop Carrier Group and flown empty to Etain, France (A-82).  The glider was piloted by Second Lieutenant Charlton W. Corwin, Jr., with Flight Officer Benjamin F. “Connie” Constantino as copilot.   Both men were assigned to the 96^th Troop Carrier Squadron.  At Etain Corwin picked up five surgeons, four medical technicians and medical supplies.  The glider was towed off from A-82 at 1436 hours and towed to Bastogne where it was released at 300 feet and landed without incident at 1511 hours.   Ten additional CG-4As lifted off from Orleans beginning at 1510 hours towed by C-47s of the 440^th Troop Carrier Group.  Each of the gliders was loaded with medical personnel, artillery shells and 60 5-gallon cans of 80 octane gasoline.  The flight ran into considerable flak and ground fire when they reached Belgium.  Three surgeons and four medical personnel were killed in the gliders from ground fire.  Flying at an altitude of 500-600 feet the first glider landed at Bastogne at 1715 hours.  The following day, 27 December 1944, beginning at 1015 hours, fifty CG-4A gliders from Chateaudun, France were towed to Bastogne behind C-47s from of the 439^th and 440^th Troop Carrier Groups.  There were no copilots on this mission.  Contrary to normal procedure, the glider pilots and their passengers wore parachutes.  The flak was fierce as they neared the landing zone.  Flying between 600 and 1,500 feet the tow plane/glider combinations were easy targets.  Thirty-three of the fifty CG-4As reached the 101^st Airborne Division perimeter, seventeen did not.  Thirteen were shot down.  A total of sixty-one CG-4As and seventy-two glider pilots participated in the Battle of the Bulge missions.  Four were listed as killed in action

and fourteen were captured by the Germans and became POWs.  Fifty-five glider pilots were evacuated from Bastogne on 28 December 1944, 22 of whom had landed there on 26 December 1944.  These glider pilots were used to guard the German POWs that were evacuated at the same time.

Data Sources:

           1.  “Silent Wings,” by Gerard M. Devlin, published by St. Martin’s Press, NYC, NY, in 1985.

           2,   “Pulse and Repulse,” by H. Rex Shama, published by Eakin Press, Austin, TX, in 1995.

XXVIII – Rhine River Crossing Mission:

24 March 1945

A total of 906 CG-4A gliders were employed in the Rhine River Crossing at Wesel, Germany.  It was the largest single day glider operation of World War II.  The lead towplane/glider combination took off from Coulommiers, France at 0734 hours with other combinations following at thirty second intervals.  The 437^th Troop Carrier Group provided 80 gliders, 40 as Serial No. A-8 and 40 as Serial No. A-9, towed off from Coulommiers; the 436^th Troop Carrier Group provided 144 gliders, 72 as Serial No. A-10 and 72 as Serial No. A-11, towed off from Melun, France; the 435^th Troop Carrier Group provided 144 gliders, 72 as Serial No, A-12 and 72 as Serial No. A-13, towed away from Bretigny, France; the 439^th Troop Carrier Group provided 144 glider, 72 as Serial No. A-14 and 72 as Serial No. A-15, towed off from Bretigny and Chateaudun, France, respectively.   All 592 gliders were towed to Landing Zone “S” across the Rhine River.  The 440^th Troop Carrier Group provided 90 gliders, 45 a Serial No. A-16 and 45 as Serial No. A-17, towed off from Bricy, France; the 441^st Troop Carrier Group provided 96 gliders, 48 as Serial No. A-18 and 48 as Serial No. 20, towed off from Bricy and Chartres, France respectively; the 442^nd Troop Carrier Group provided 48 gliders, Serial No. A-19, towed off from St. Andre, France; the 314^th Troop Carrier Group provided 80 gliders, 40 as Serial No. A-21 and 40 as Serial No. A-22, towed off from Poiix, France.  All 314 gliders were towed to Landing Zone “N”.  Serials A-8 through A-18 was double tow, while A-16 through A-22 was single tow.  General Paul Williams, Commander of the IX Troop Carrier Command, agreed to use C-46 aircraft of the 313^th Troop Carrier Group for paratroop operations, but not the CG-13A.  He felt that the CG-13A had not been tested enough to be used in combat.  Only 49 of the 72 C-46s returned to airfield B-54  at Achiet, France.  23 were shot down or crash landed.  Following Operation Varsity C-46s were banned from flying combat missions because of the vulnerability of its hydraulic control systems and the lack of self-sealing gas tanks.   Varsity was the only Troop Carrier mission in which the C-46 was used.  Ironically, the C-47 was also not equipped with seal sealing gas tanks, but it continued to fly combat missions.   The British used 381 Horsas, 48 Hamilcars and 858 glider pilots in their phase of Operation Varsity.  402 British gliders arrived over the LZ.  One British tug and glider failed to take off and an additional 35 gliders broke loose enroute to the LZ.  There were six glider LZs used in Varsity.   Eighty-eight American glider pilots were killed in action who flew the Varsity mission, 240 were wounded or injured and 81 were captured by the Germans and became POWs.           

Data Sources:

           1.  “Silent Wings.” by Gerard M. Devlin. Published by St. Martin’s Press, NYC, NY, in 1985.

           2.  “Green Light,”  by Martin Wolfe, published by University of PA Press, Philadelphia in 1989

XXIX – Luzon, Philippine Islands, Mission:

23 June 1945

Six CG-4A and one CG-13A gliders were used in the Philippine Islands mission.  Operation Gypsy Task Force, as it was called, took place at Camalaniugan Airfield, near Aparri, Luzon.  The towplane/glider combinations took off from Lipa, Luzon shortly after 0600 hours on 23 June 1945.  Glider pilots participating in the mission were; Major Edward Milau, Lieutenant Max Cone. Lieutenant John J. Booth, Lieutenant Daryl E. Drummond, Flight Officer William Bartz, Flight Officer Robert Brook, Flight Officer Robert J. Meer, Flight Officer Donald R. Orkney, and Flight Officer Harold N. Wallace.  The CG-13A was piloted by Major Milau, with Lieutenant Cone as copilot.  The glider pilots were assigned to Major Milau’s, 1^st Provisional Glider Group.  The gliders landed shortly after 0900 hours and faced no Japanese resistance.  Only one glider was damaged in landing when it hit a bomb crater.  The gliders carried troops, jeeps, ammunition trailers and armament, in addition to medical and communications equipment.  

Data Sources:

           1.  “Silent Wings.” Gerard M. Devlin, published by St. Martin’s Press, NYC, NY, in 1985.  

Note 1:  A total of 3,784 CG-4A gliders were used in the eight glider mission of World War II.  A few gliders were used more than once.

Note 2:  The above data was compiled over a several week period in March 2015.  Revised in September 2015.

Data Sources for US Army Air Force WWII Combat Glider Program:

           1.  USAF Historical Studies No. 1 – The Glider Pilot Training Program – 1941 to 1943

           2.  USAF Historical Studies No. 47 – Development & Procurement of Gliders in the Army Air Force – 1941-1944